Smelting is the process of extracting metals from their ores by heating and using a reducing agent.

Electrolysis is used to purify copper by separating it from impurities in the solution.

Alkenes can undergo hydrogenation, dehydration, and esterification, making all of the above reactions applicable.

Friedel-Crafts acylation involves the reaction of benzene with an acyl chloride (like CH3COCl) in the presence of a Lewis acid.

The reaction H2 + O2 → H2O involves the oxidation of hydrogen and reduction of oxygen, making it a redox reaction.

The reaction of a tertiary alkyl halide with water is an SN1 mechanism due to the formation of a stable carbocation.

Nitration of benzene is an example of electrophilic aromatic substitution, where a nitro group replaces a hydrogen atom on the benzene ring.

Benzene + CH3COCl in AlCl3 is an example of Friedel-Crafts acylation, where an acyl group is introduced to the aromatic ring.

Reduction occurs at the cathode, where electrons are gained.

Sodium chloride is widely used as a de-icing agent due to its effectiveness in lowering the freezing point of water.

Sodium chloride, or table salt, is widely used as a preservative in various food products.

NH4Cl is formed from the strong acid HCl and the weak base NH3.

NaNO3 is soluble in water, while AgCl, BaSO4, and PbI2 are generally insoluble.

0.1 m CaCl2 produces three particles (Ca2+ and 2 Cl-), leading to the highest boiling point elevation among the options.

Coordination compounds consist of a central metal atom bonded to one or more ligands, which can be neutral or charged.

Corrosion is a spontaneous redox reaction where metals oxidize, often leading to deterioration.

Electrochemical cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy during spontaneous reactions.

Electrolysis involves the decomposition of a compound through the application of electrical energy.

In electrophilic aromatic substitution, the aromatic ring acts as a nucleophile, attacking the electrophile to form a sigma complex.

Enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images and rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions.

Hybridization involves the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals that can form covalent bonds.

Hydrogen bonding occurs when hydrogen is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen.

Hydrogen can form cations (H+) in reactions, especially in acid-base chemistry.

Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, typically between metals and nonmetals.

IR spectroscopy can analyze solid, liquid, and gas samples, making it versatile for various states of matter.

The rate-determining step is indeed the slowest step in a reaction mechanism, which controls the overall rate of the reaction.

Reaction rates can change with time as reactants are consumed and products are formed, affecting the concentration of reactants.

Real gases can condense into liquids under certain conditions, unlike ideal gases which are assumed to have no volume and no intermolecular forces.

Resonance structures differ only in the arrangement of electrons, while the positions of the nuclei remain the same, contributing to the overall hybrid structure.

E2 reactions require the leaving group and the hydrogen to be anti-periplanar for the elimination to occur.