To create 4 subnets, 2 bits must be borrowed from the host portion (2^2 = 4).

In a /22 subnet, 10 bits are used for the host portion (32 total bits - 22 bits for the network = 10 bits for hosts).

In a Class B IP address, the first 16 bits are used for the network portion, allowing for a large number of hosts.

A Red-Black tree uses two colors: red and black, to maintain balance and ensure properties.

The worst-case number of comparisons is log2(16) = 4, but since we start counting from 0, it takes 5 comparisons.

In the worst case, binary search makes log n comparisons to find the target or determine its absence.

A binary tree with n internal nodes can have n + 1 leaf nodes.

A full binary tree with n internal nodes has n + 1 leaf nodes.

A full binary tree with 'n' internal nodes has 'n + 1' leaf nodes.

A full binary tree of height h has 2^(h+1) - 1 nodes.

In the worst case, a single insertion in an AVL tree may require up to 2 rotations to maintain balance.

In the worst case, 2 rotations may be needed to balance an AVL tree after an insertion.

In the worst case, 2 rotations may be needed to balance an AVL tree after an insertion.

In the worst case, at most 2 rotations are needed to maintain the balance of an AVL tree after insertion.

In the worst case, inserting a node into an AVL tree may require up to 2 rotations to restore balance.

Typically, only one rotation is needed to balance an AVL tree after a single insertion, unless it is a double rotation case.

At most two rotations are needed to balance an AVL tree after an insertion, depending on the case of imbalance.

In the worst case, 2 rotations may be required to balance an AVL tree after an insertion.

In the worst case, 2 rotations are required to balance an AVL tree after an insertion.

In the worst case, up to 2 rotations may be required to maintain the properties of a Red-Black Tree after insertion.

In the worst case, only 1 or 2 rotations are required to maintain the balance of an AVL tree after insertion.

In the worst case, inserting a node into an AVL tree may require up to 2 rotations to maintain balance.

Borrowing 3 bits from a /24 network allows for 2^3 = 8 subnets.

Using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 on a Class B network allows for 256 subnets, as it borrows 8 bits from the host portion.

Borrowing 3 bits from the host portion allows for 2^3 = 8 subnets, but with 2 reserved for network and broadcast, 6 usable subnets remain.

A /22 subnet provides 2^(32-22) = 2^10 = 1024 total IP addresses.

A /24 subnet mask allows for 256 total addresses, but 2 are reserved (network and broadcast), leaving 254 usable host addresses.

A /28 subnet has 16 total addresses, but 2 are reserved (network and broadcast), leaving 14 usable host addresses.

A subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 allows for 16 total addresses, but 2 are reserved (network and broadcast), leaving 14 usable hosts.

A /28 subnet has 2^(32-28) = 2^4 = 16 total addresses. Subtracting 2 for the network and broadcast addresses leaves 14 usable addresses.