The principle of relativity states that the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial frames of reference, meaning they hold true regardless of the observer's state of motion.

Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing a significant amount of energy.

Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable nucleus emits radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma rays.

Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to modify its electrical properties, enhancing its conductivity.

The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency, as given by the equation E = hf, where h is Planck's constant.

A rectifier is used in semiconductor circuits to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), allowing for the use of AC power in DC applications.

The emission spectrum of an atom indicates the energy levels of electrons, as each line corresponds to a transition between energy levels.

Wave-particle duality is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that states that every particle or quantum entity can be described as either a particle or a wave, depending on the experimental conditions.

Wave-particle duality is significant because it reveals that light and matter can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, depending on the experimental conditions.

Ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom, leading to the formation of a positive ion.

Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom, leading to the formation of a positively charged ion.

The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of incident light required to eject electrons from a metal surface.

The work function is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of a material.

The discrete lines in atomic spectra are explained by quantum transitions between energy levels, where electrons absorb or emit photons.

The discrete lines in atomic spectra are due to quantum transitions between energy levels of electrons in an atom.

The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon where electrons are emitted from a material when it is exposed to light of sufficient frequency.

Diffraction occurs when light passes through a narrow slit, causing it to spread out and create a pattern of light and dark regions.

The maximum kinetic energy (KE) of emitted electrons is given by the equation KE = hf - φ, where φ is the work function of the material.

The equation E = hf - φ describes the photoelectric effect, where E is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, hf is the energy of the incident photon, and φ is the work function.

Bohr's model introduced the concept of quantized energy levels for electrons in an atom.

Semiconductors have a conductivity that increases with temperature due to the increased number of charge carriers available for conduction.

Aluminum is a metal that can easily lose electrons and thus is likely to exhibit the photoelectric effect.

Gluons are the exchange particles that mediate the strong nuclear force between quarks, which make up protons and neutrons.