A hapten is a small molecule that can elicit an immune response only when attached to a larger carrier.

A plasmid is a circular DNA molecule that is commonly used as a vector in recombinant DNA technology.

An allosteric site is a regulatory site on an enzyme that can bind molecules and influence the enzyme's activity.

An antigen is a foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body.

An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

The decarboxylation of isocitrate produces NADH and CO2.

Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement and interaction of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein.

The basic structure of an amino acid includes a central carbon atom, an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable side chain (R group).

DNA is composed of nucleotides, which are the basic building blocks.

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that corresponds to a specific amino acid.

DNA strands are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.

A competitive inhibitor decreases the reaction rate by competing with the substrate for the active site.

Allosteric inhibition decreases enzyme activity by altering the enzyme's conformation.

High glucose levels lead to low cAMP levels, which decreases the transcription of the lac operon.

Increasing the voltage decreases the migration time, allowing the samples to move faster through the gel.

The solubility of peptides can be affected by pH, as it influences the ionization of amino acid side chains.

pH can lead to denaturation, affecting protein stability and function.

Enzyme activity typically increases with temperature to an optimal point, after which it decreases due to denaturation.

Trans fats are known to increase inflammation and are associated with higher LDL cholesterol levels.

Uncouplers disrupt the proton gradient, leading to increased heat production instead of ATP.

The complete oxidation of fatty acids results in carbon dioxide and water, along with ATP production.

The end product of glycolysis is pyruvate.

The end products of the Krebs cycle are carbon dioxide and water, along with electron carriers NADH and FADH2.

The end product of the urea cycle is urea, which is excreted in urine.

Excess amino acids are typically converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis or stored as fat.

Physical barriers, such as skin and mucous membranes, constitute the first line of defense against pathogens.

Transcription is the first step of protein synthesis, where mRNA is synthesized from DNA.

A silencer is a regulatory element that inhibits transcription when bound by specific proteins.

Aldolase catalyzes the cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two three-carbon sugars.

Glycoproteins play a key role in cell recognition and signaling by serving as identification markers on the cell surface.