pH = -log[H⁺] = -log(1.0 x 10⁻⁷) = 7.

Sublimation is the phase change from solid directly to gas without passing through the liquid phase.

Batteries store energy through electrochemical reactions, allowing for the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.

The kinetic molecular theory states that gas particles are in constant, random motion, which explains gas behavior.

A sigma bond is formed by end-to-end overlap of orbitals, allowing for free rotation around the bond axis.

The formation of a solid precipitate is the primary driving force in double displacement reactions, leading to a decrease in solubility.

Electron shielding affects the effective nuclear charge felt by outer electrons, influencing atomic size.

The rate of a surface reaction is primarily affected by the surface area of the reactants available for reaction.

The rate of diffusion of a gas is primarily affected by its molar mass; lighter gases diffuse faster than heavier gases according to Graham's law.

The atomic radius increases with the number of electron shells, as each additional shell is further from the nucleus.

The shape of the molecule determines how bond dipoles add up, affecting overall polarity.

The Arrhenius equation shows that the rate constant increases exponentially with temperature.

According to Graham's law of effusion, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight.

VSEPR theory states that the shape of a molecule is determined by the repulsion between electron pairs, including both bonding and lone pairs.

The state of matter is primarily determined by the balance between temperature (kinetic energy) and intermolecular forces.

Bond strength increases with bond order. A higher bond order indicates more shared electron pairs, leading to a stronger bond.

A galvanic cell converts chemical energy from spontaneous redox reactions into electrical energy.

The primary function of a salt bridge is to maintain charge balance by allowing ions to flow between the half-cells.

A salt bridge maintains charge balance by allowing ions to flow between the two half-cells, preventing charge buildup.

Enthalpy is defined as the total heat content of a system at constant pressure, making it essential for calculating heat transfer in chemical reactions.

The increase in metallic bonding strength due to more delocalized electrons contributes to higher melting points.

Increasing temperature raises the kinetic energy of molecules, leading to more frequent and effective collisions, thus increasing the reaction rate.

The bent shape of the water molecule is due to the repulsion between the two lone pairs on the oxygen atom.

Catalysts are primarily used in industrial processes to increase the reaction rate, allowing for more efficient production.

Catalysts are primarily used to speed up reaction rates, making processes more efficient and cost-effective.

A catalyst lowers the activation energy of a reaction, thereby increasing the rate without being consumed.

Sodium donates an electron to chlorine, resulting in an ionic bond due to the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

Metallic bonding involves a 'sea of electrons' that are delocalized over a lattice of metal cations.

A fuel cell converts the chemical energy of a fuel (like hydrogen) directly into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions.

Electrochemical sensors are widely used to detect and quantify pollutants in various environments.